PostgreSQL教程
PostgreSQL分布式数据库实践
本文主要是介绍PostgreSQL分布式数据库实践，对大家解决编程问题具有一定的参考价值，需要的程序猿们随着小编来一起学习吧！
为什么需要分布式数据库
有很多原因数据库需要扩展性。1、请求需要访问的数据量过大（单纯的数据量大不是理由，例如从不访问，归档即可）；2、服务器CPU、内存、网络、IO到了瓶颈，响应时间大大下降；3、MPP中，集中式数据库在设计时通常为了开发人员使用更加顺畅和丝滑，尽可能的让数据库设计和SQL非常简单，比如不需要指定某些表实际上是存在主外键关系，从而导致并行执行效果打折；或者并行执行在一开始并不包含，后面逐渐增强，导致并行执行有天然的缺陷，分区亦如此。这三通常是根本原因。
Citus介绍
首先提供了比较公正参考的是citus中国写的一篇文章PG-XL，Citus，GreenPlum如何选择，不同于其他分布式数据库如tidb、oceanbase、tdsql等每家都说自己最厉害，citus还是比较客观的分析，它自己比较适合于OLTP下的分布式，并不适合于大规模的adhoc场景。实际上很多系统数据量积累的比较大、同时业务流程又很复杂，但是TPS不高，这些系统要应用于分布式数据库，物理模型的设计是很重要的，不是简单的库能套上去的，例如数据中心、历史库的包含就很重要了。亦或者上去了就下不来了，维护成本会非常高。
和其他分布式架构一样，citus也采用协调者和工作者节点，也可以认为是master和worker，说计算和存储分离是不合适的（大多数分布式数据库如oceanbase、goldendb、TDSQL自称计算和存储分离也是不合适的）。真正接近了存储和计算分离的是oracle exadata、tidb。如下所示，协调者和工作者一样都是postgresql实例。
SQL语句经过语法解析后，在协调者节点的analyze阶段被citus扩展（和greenplum、xl、xc不同的是，citus采用的是extension机制（pg定义了大量hook供各种extension访问，具体可参见postgresql内核开发必备之extension机制））替换，并进行SQL语句的fork and join过程。得益于extension这一点，你可以认为citus本质上和greenplum、xl以及xc在事务、语法语义等数据库本身特性的支持上是差不多的。而不是三方中间件如pgpool、pgbouncer中的硬塞实现。因此具有更好的一致性和稳定性保证。
在分布式事务的实现上，citus也是采用2PC协议。它的实现可以参考http://citusdb.cn/?p=661。
注：citus架构的优点在于，它认为分布式是一个特性，而不是属性。这一点LZ在所有场合都是这么坚信，95%+的系统永远都不需要微服务架构，数据库也不需要分布式，因为其到不了那个容量，所以理论上可以扩展使得应用能够同时运行于单实例和分布式，而其它一开始就设计为分布式的数据库是很难的。
因为没有做单独GTM节点的概念，citus无法的协调者无法实现多活，这种情况下容易出现协调者单点，如下：
对此，Citus还提供了两个参数use_secondary_node和writable_standby_coordinator以支持写入能力扩展及数据节点读写分离。这样standby cn也可以执行查询和DML操作。如下所示：
由此可见，可靠的分布式数据库架构是非常复杂的，如果没有非常一体化的监控管理平台，其维护难度可想而知。
参考：https://blog.csdn.net/weixin_46199817/article/details/117223870
Citus安装
可以从https://github.com/citusdata/citus下载源码或rpm，一般用户可以选择yum install citus101_13-10.1.1.citus-1.el7.x86_64。
[zjh@lightdb1 usr]$ rpm -ql postgresql13-13.3-1PGDG.rhel7.x86_64 /usr/pgsql-13/bin/clusterdb /usr/pgsql-13/bin/createdb /usr/pgsql-13/bin/createuser /usr/pgsql-13/bin/dropdb /usr/pgsql-13/bin/dropuser /usr/pgsql-13/bin/pg_basebackup /usr/pgsql-13/bin/pg_config /usr/pgsql-13/bin/pg_dump /usr/pgsql-13/bin/pg_dumpall [zjh@lightdb1 usr]$ rpm -qa | grep citus citus_13-10.0.3-1.rhel7.x86_64 r[zjh@lightdb1 usr]$ rpm -ql citus_13-10.0.3-1.rhel7.x86_64 /usr/pgsql-13/doc/extension/README-citus.md /usr/pgsql-13/lib/citus.so /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--10.0-1--10.0-2.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--10.0-2--10.0-3.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--8.0-1--8.0-2.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--8.0-1.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--8.0-10--8.0-11.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--8.0-11--8.0-12.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--8.0-12--8.0-13.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--8.0-13--8.1-1.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--8.0-2--8.0-3.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--8.0-3--8.0-4.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--8.0-4--8.0-5.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--8.0-5--8.0-6.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--8.0-6--8.0-7.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--8.0-7--8.0-8.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--8.0-8--8.0-9.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--8.0-9--8.0-10.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--8.1-1--8.2-1.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--8.2-1--8.2-2.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--8.2-2--8.2-3.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--8.2-3--8.2-4.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--8.2-4--8.3-1.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--8.3-1--9.0-1.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--9.0-1--9.0-2.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--9.0-2--9.1-1.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--9.1-1--9.2-1.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--9.2-1--9.2-2.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--9.2-2--9.2-4.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--9.2-4--9.3-2.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--9.3-1--9.2-4.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--9.3-2--9.4-1.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--9.4-1--9.5-1.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus--9.5-1--10.0-1.sql /usr/pgsql-13/share/extension/citus.control /usr/share/doc/citus_13-10.0.3 /usr/share/doc/citus_13-10.0.3/CHANGELOG.md /usr/share/licenses/citus_13-10.0.3 /usr/share/licenses/citus_13-10.0.3/LICENSE
然后正常通过initdb创建postgresql数据库，1个CN，2个DN。
如下：
[zjh@lightdb1 pgsql-13]$ ll total 24 drwxr-xr-x 2 zjh zjh 4096 Jun 1 17:43 bin drwx------ 21 zjh zjh 4096 Aug 29 00:00 coordinator_1 drwxr-xr-x 3 zjh zjh 23 Jun 1 17:43 doc drwxr-xr-x 3 zjh zjh 4096 Jun 19 14:58 lib drwxr-xr-x 7 zjh zjh 4096 Jun 1 17:43 share drwx------ 21 zjh zjh 4096 Aug 29 00:00 worker_1_13588 drwx------ 21 zjh zjh 4096 Aug 29 00:00 worker_2_23588
安装citus插件：
-- CN和DN都要配置 shared_preload_libraries='citus' -- 第一个插件必须是citus CREATE EXTENSION citus; -- 安装在postgres用户下即可
SELECT * from citus_add_node('10.0.0.1', 13588);
SELECT * from citus_add_node('10.0.0.1', 23588);
查询DN列表：
postgres=# SELECT * FROM citus_get_active_worker_nodes(); node_name | node_port --------------+----------- 10.0.0.1 | 23588 10.0.0.1 | 13588 (2 rows)
概念
在citus中，分片和节点不是一对一关系，这一点不同于greenplum，更接近nosql如couchbase的设计，一定程度上这么做也避免了使用了citus之后还需要分区的必要性（这是个优点、也是个缺点，平衡的结果）。
Citus表类型
citus中表分三种类型，1：分库表（每个DN n个分片，分片数量可配置，一般是订单表和客户表）；2：广播表（每个DN一份，CN不包括，一般是字典表、产品表、费率表、机构表、权限表等）；3：全局表（仅存在于CN，一些系统参数表，统计表，也可能广播存储，看情况），全局表一般不会和广播表、分库表进行关联，默认CN创建表的时候就是local表，也可以通过SELECT undistribute_table('github_events');将分库表切换回local表（此时会数据先迁移回来，也是缩容的一种方式）。
广播表和分库表，广播表和广播表之间关联会很多。
同时会存在多种业务存在于同一个数据库中的情况，例如库存和客户，操作日志和订单，小二和菜单、功能、客户，并且同时有从菜单维度查，也有从小二维度查。所以citus支持对表进行分组，相关分组的表，citus在生成分布式执行计划的时候就知道那些是相关的，哪些是无关的。如下：
SELECT create_distributed_table('event', 'tenant_id');
SELECT create_distributed_table('page', 'tenant_id', colocate_with => 'event');
分组的前提是两个表使用相同字段作为分片字段。分组可以使得SQL的优化更加进一步。
总有一会儿，你会发现库存和客户表进行关联，通过订单进行的。这个时候库存是根据产品分片的，客户是通过客户id分片的。此时效果会怎么样呢？
不同于greenplum支持distributed by语法，citus因为采用extension实现，没有扩展pg本身的语法，所以采用函数的方式来指定表是否为分布式表。
CREATE TABLE companies (
id bigserial PRIMARY KEY,
name text NOT NULL,
image_url text,
created_at timestamp without time zone NOT NULL,
updated_at timestamp without time zone NOT NULL
);
SELECT create_distributed_table('companies', 'id'); -- companies表为分布式表，id是用于分片的字段
需要注意的是，citus分片数量和worker数量不是一一对应，这和gp不同，但类似于现在tidb、oceanbase的做法。如下：
要创建广播表，可以使用create_reference_table函数：
SELECT create_reference_table('geo_ips'); -- 所有worker节点广播，不包含CN
大多数的DDL语句citus都支持，会负责分布式调用所有worker。
自定义数据分布算法、副本数、分片数
Citus函数类型
不管用户是否承认，相同的功能，存储过程和函数实现的效率就是要比应用发送SQL过来效率更高。所以citus支持了分布式函数的概念。
新增节点
新增节点后，默认不会启用，需要调用rebalance_table_shards让citus对数据进行迁移，然后才会被访问。
SELECT rebalance_table_shards('companies');
执行计划分析
explain(analyze,verbose,buffers) select
count(*) as low_stock
from
(
select
s_w_id,
s_i_id,
s_quantity
from
bmsql_stock
where
s_w_id = 975
and s_quantity < 12
and s_i_id in (
select
ol_i_id
from
bmsql_district
join bmsql_order_line on
ol_w_id = d_w_id
and ol_d_id = d_id
and ol_o_id >= d_next_o_id - 20
and ol_o_id < d_next_o_id
where
d_w_id = 975
and d_id = 9 ) ) as L
QUERY PLAN |
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
Custom Scan (Citus Adaptive) (cost=0.00..0.00 rows=0 width=0) (actual time=9.781..9.782 rows=1 loops=1) |
Output: remote_scan.low_stock |
Task Count: 1 |
Tuple data received from nodes: 1 bytes |
Tasks Shown: All |
-> Task |
Query: SELECT count(*) AS low_stock FROM (SELECT bmsql_stock.s_w_id, bmsql_stock.s_i_id, bmsql_stock.s_quantity FROM public.bmsql_stock_103384 bmsql_stock WHERE ((bmsql_stock.s_w_id OPERATOR(pg_catalog.=) 975) AND (bmsql_stock.s_quantity OPERATOR(|
Tuple data received from node: 1 bytes |
Node: host=127.0.0.1 port=13588 dbname=postgres |
-> Aggregate (cost=25597.32..25597.33 rows=1 width=8) (actual time=1.276..1.277 rows=1 loops=1) |
Output: count(*) |
Buffers: shared hit=810 |
-> Nested Loop (cost=7612.59..25597.14 rows=73 width=0) (actual time=0.389..1.272 rows=4 loops=1) |
Inner Unique: true |
Buffers: shared hit=810 |
-> HashAggregate (cost=7612.16..7646.24 rows=3408 width=4) (actual time=0.163..0.206 rows=186 loops=1) |
Output: bmsql_order_line.ol_i_id |
Group Key: bmsql_order_line.ol_i_id |
Batches: 1 Memory Usage: 129kB |
Buffers: shared hit=42 |
-> Nested Loop (cost=0.71..7603.64 rows=3408 width=4) (actual time=0.055..0.131 rows=189 loops=1) |
Output: bmsql_order_line.ol_i_id |
Buffers: shared hit=42 |
-> Index Scan using bmsql_district_pkey_103191 on public.bmsql_district_103191 bmsql_district (cost=0.27..8.30 rows=1 width=12) (actual time=0.014..0.014 rows=1 loops=1) |
Output: bmsql_district.d_w_id, bmsql_district.d_id, bmsql_district.d_ytd, bmsql_district.d_tax, bmsql_district.d_next_o_id, bmsql_district.d_name, bmsql_district.d_street_1, bmsql_district.d_street_2, bmsql_district.d|
Index Cond: ((bmsql_district.d_w_id = 975) AND (bmsql_district.d_id = 9)) |
Buffers: shared hit=3 |
-> Index Scan using bmsql_order_line_pkey_103351 on public.bmsql_order_line_103351 bmsql_order_line (cost=0.44..7561.26 rows=3408 width=16) (actual time=0.022..0.081 rows=189 loops=1) |
Output: bmsql_order_line.ol_w_id, bmsql_order_line.ol_d_id, bmsql_order_line.ol_o_id, bmsql_order_line.ol_number, bmsql_order_line.ol_i_id, bmsql_order_line.ol_delivery_d, bmsql_order_line.ol_amount, bmsql_order_line.|
Index Cond: ((bmsql_order_line.ol_w_id = 975) AND (bmsql_order_line.ol_d_id = 9) AND (bmsql_order_line.ol_o_id >= (bmsql_district.d_next_o_id - 20)) AND (bmsql_order_line.ol_o_id < bmsql_district.d_next_o_id)) |
Buffers: shared hit=39 |
-> Index Scan using bmsql_stock_pkey_103384 on public.bmsql_stock_103384 bmsql_stock (cost=0.43..5.27 rows=1 width=4) (actual time=0.006..0.006 rows=0 loops=186) |
Output: bmsql_stock.s_w_id, bmsql_stock.s_i_id, bmsql_stock.s_quantity, bmsql_stock.s_ytd, bmsql_stock.s_order_cnt, bmsql_stock.s_remote_cnt, bmsql_stock.s_data, bmsql_stock.s_dist_01, bmsql_stock.s_dist_02, bmsql_stock.s_dist_03|
Index Cond: ((bmsql_stock.s_w_id = 975) AND (bmsql_stock.s_i_id = bmsql_order_line.ol_i_id)) |
Filter: (bmsql_stock.s_quantity < 12) |
Rows Removed by Filter: 1 |
Buffers: shared hit=768 |
Planning Time: 0.755 ms |
Execution Time: 1.498 ms |
Planning: |
Buffers: shared hit=3 |
Planning Time: 0.324 ms |
Execution Time: 9.796 ms |
一般SQL，失真不算很严重。
高可用
CN成为瓶颈
bypass-CN模式
使用benchmarksql进行TPC-C测试
因为TPC-C所有的表都co-location到warehouse_id了，所以跑TPCC是没有问题的。只不过citus的重写着实有点蠢。如下：
2021-10-07 21:21:47.037945T [239675] LOG: duration: 97782.322 ms execute <unnamed>: SELECT count(*) AS low_stock FROM (SELECT bmsql_stock.s_w_id, bmsql_stock.s_i_id, bmsql_stock.s_quantity FROM public.bmsql_stock_103379 bmsql_stock WHERE ((bmsql_stock.s_w_id OPERATOR(pg_catalog.=) $1) AND (bmsql_stock.s_quantity OPERATOR(pg_catalog.<) $2) AND (bmsql_stock.s_i_id OPERATOR(pg_catalog.=) ANY (SELECT bmsql_order_line.ol_i_id FROM (public.bmsql_district_103186 bmsql_district JOIN public.bmsql_order_line_103346 bmsql_order_line ON (((bmsql_order_line.ol_w_id OPERATOR(pg_catalog.=) bmsql_district.d_w_id) AND (bmsql_order_line.ol_d_id OPERATOR(pg_catalog.=) bmsql_district.d_id) AND (bmsql_order_line.ol_o_id OPERATOR(pg_catalog.>=) (bmsql_district.d_next_o_id OPERATOR(pg_catalog.-) 20)) AND (bmsql_order_line.ol_o_id OPERATOR(pg_catalog.<) bmsql_district.d_next_o_id)))) WHERE ((bmsql_district.d_w_id OPERATOR(pg_catalog.=) $3) AND (bmsql_district.d_id OPERATOR(pg_catalog.=) $4)))))) l 2021-10-07 21:21:47.037945T [239675] DETAIL: parameters: $1 = '974', $2 = '13', $3 = '974', $4 = '10'
同时，citus到worker节点后，执行计划的效果很不理想。有些select count(1)执行居然要几十秒，在单机时只要及时毫秒。tpmC从20万掉下到6万。
管理接口
除了标准的建表功能外，分布式数据库至少要支持：
显示的广播接口，包括：到每个主worker节点，到每个主副worker节点，到每个主分片，到每个主副分片。
显示的单播可用接口，包括：到任一worker节点，到任一分片。
p14.6 Manual Query Propagation
TPC-H测试
citus对TPC-H的支持不太好，准确的是说复杂关联支持不好。但凡涉及到关联字段不包含分片键、没有co-location的几乎都不支持。如下：
Vuser 1:Query Failed : select o_year, sum(case when nation = 'MOZAMBIQUE' then volume else 0 end) / sum(volume) as mkt_share from ( select extract(year from o_orderdate) as o_year, l_extendedprice * (1 - l_discount) as volume, n2.n_name as nation from part, supplier, lineitem, orders, customer, nation n1, nation n2, region where p_partkey = l_partkey and s_suppkey = l_suppkey and l_orderkey = o_orderkey and o_custkey = c_custkey and c_nationkey = n1.n_nationkey and n1.n_regionkey = r_regionkey and r_name = 'AFRICA' and s_nationkey = n2.n_nationkey and o_orderdate between date '1995-01-01' and date '1996-12-31' and p_type = 'STANDARD POLISHED STEEL') all_nations group by o_year order by o_year : ERROR: complex joins are only supported when all distributed tables are co-located and joined on their distribution columns
Vuser 1:Query Failed : select cntrycode, count(*) as numcust, sum(c_acctbal) as totacctbal from ( select substr(c_phone, 1, 2) as cntrycode, c_acctbal from customer where substr(c_phone, 1, 2) in ('23', '32', '17', '18', '16', '20', '25') and c_acctbal > ( select avg(c_acctbal) from customer where c_acctbal > 0.00 and substr(c_phone, 1, 2) in ('23', '32', '17', '18', '16', '20', '25')) and not exists ( select * from orders where o_custkey = c_custkey)) custsale group by cntrycode order by cntrycode : ERROR: direct joins between distributed and local tables are not supported
因为citus是插件化，注定了不可能和原生GP一样默认为分布式MPP而生。开启citus.enable_repartition_joins后，有10个语句默认跑不通。
CITUS注意点
postgres=# create table t_batch(id int primary key generated always as identity,d1 bigint,d2 bigint,d3 bigint);
CREATE TABLE
postgres=# SELECT create_distributed_table('t_batch','id');
ERROR: cannot distribute relation: t_batch
DETAIL: Distributed relations must not use GENERATED ... AS IDENTITY.
但是bigserial居然支持？
postgres=# create table t_batch(id bigserial primary key,d1 bigint,d2 bigint,d3 bigint);
CREATE TABLE
postgres=# SELECT create_distributed_table('t_batch','id');
create_distributed_table
--------------------------
(1 row)
序列及序列作为默认值支持
postgres=# alter table bmsql_history
postgres-# alter column hist_id set default nextval('bmsql_hist_id_seq');
ALTER TABLE
postgres=# alter table bmsql_history add primary key (hist_id); -- 约束必须加名字
ERROR: cannot create constraint without a name on a distributed table
alter table bmsql_history add constraint bmsql_history_pkey primary key (hist_id); ERROR: cannot create constraint on "bmsql_history" Detail: Distributed relations cannot have UNIQUE, EXCLUDE, or PRIMARY KEY constraints that do not include the partition column (with an equality operator if EXCLUDE).
postgres=# select pg_size_pretty(citus_relation_size('search_doc_new_ic'));
pg_size_pretty
----------------
10045 MB
(1 row)
Time: 1.367 ms
postgres=# select pg_size_pretty(citus_table_size('search_doc_new_ic')); -- 不应该差这么多
pg_size_pretty
----------------
216 GB
(1 row)
Time: 14.957 ms
postgres=# select pg_size_pretty(citus_total_relation_size('search_doc_new_ic'));
pg_size_pretty
----------------
243 GB
(1 row)
主外键限制
tpch=# SELECT create_distributed_table('orders', 'o_orderkey');
NOTICE: Copying data from local table...
NOTICE: copying the data has completed
DETAIL: The local data in the table is no longer visible, but is still on disk.
HINT: To remove the local data, run: SELECT truncate_local_data_after_distributing_table($$public.orders$$)
ERROR: cannot create foreign key constraint since relations are not colocated or not referencing a reference table
DETAIL: A distributed table can only have foreign keys if it is referencing another colocated hash distributed table or a reference table
tpch=# \dS+ orders
Table "public.orders"
Column | Type | Collation | Nullable | Default | Storage | Stats target | Description
-----------------+-----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------------+-------------
o_orderdate | timestamp without time zone | | | | plain | |
o_orderkey | numeric | | not null | | main | |
o_custkey | numeric | | not null | | main | |
o_orderpriority | character(15) | | | | extended | |
o_shippriority | numeric | | | | main | |
o_clerk | character(15) | | | | extended | |
o_orderstatus | character(1) | | | | extended | |
o_totalprice | numeric | | | | main | |
o_comment | character varying(79) | | | | extended | |
Indexes:
"orders_pk" PRIMARY KEY, btree (o_orderkey)
"order_customer_fkidx" btree (o_custkey)
Foreign-key constraints:
"order_customer_fk" FOREIGN KEY (o_custkey) REFERENCES customer(c_custkey)
Referenced by:
TABLE "lineitem" CONSTRAINT "lineitem_order_fk" FOREIGN KEY (l_orderkey) REFERENCES orders(o_orderkey)
Access method: heap
NOTICE: removing table public.lineitem from metadata as it is not connected to any reference tables via foreign keys
tpch=# SELECT create_distributed_table('part', 'p_partkey');
NOTICE: Copying data from local table...
NOTICE: copying the data has completed
DETAIL: The local data in the table is no longer visible, but is still on disk.
HINT: To remove the local data, run: SELECT truncate_local_data_after_distributing_table($$public.part$$)
ERROR: cannot create foreign key constraint since foreign keys from reference tables and local tables to distributed tables are not supported
DETAIL: Reference tables and local tables can only have foreign keys to reference tables and local tables
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